The following essay was initially planned to be included on the SRS release of The Whale God, but did not wind up on the final release. As such, author Henning Strauss has given Maser Patrol permission to reproduce it here.
Preface:
In Japan’s rich mythology, there is also a story of a ghost whale. The bake kujira-named legend can be found in prefectures like in Shimane. In this folklore, fish are going rare, because the ghost whale has appeared. In 1952, only seven years after the war, a man named Eiji Tsuburaya was trying to make Japan’s first giant monster (kaiju) movie. His first movie idea was that the legendary ghost whale should now rise again and attack Tokyo.
His idea was denied, but he tried and later this idea was also referenced in GODZILLA (1954), where Eiji Tsuburaya directed the special effects. The name “Godzilla” is a combination of the Japanese word for whale, “kujira” (or “kudzira” as they would render it in Roman letters at the time) with “gorilla”. Tsuburaya saw the 1933 KING KONG back in the day and wanted his own giant monster ever since. (if you want: fan, movie-maker, author and artist Jules Carozza created a visual what-if-scenario based on Tsuburaya’s first giant monster movie idea with the help of the A.I. software of Midjourney). In addition the 1933 KING KONG had seen a popular re-release in 1952, not only in Japan, but also in other countries. It may be of interest, that KING KONG was distributed by Daiei then.
Later, a man named Shigeru Mizuki should popularize the bake kujira in his GEGEGE NO KITARO manga series, which was also adapted into anime and live-action.
Preface 2:
In 1961, author Koichiro Uno published a novel named THE WHALE GOD. It became a hit among Japanese readers and just one year later, in 1962: the Japanese studio of Daiei (1942-1971; 1974-2002) released a movie-adaptation. The movie starred Shintaro Katsu, who would also begin his long career as the blind masseur, gambler and swordsman ZATOICHI based on the character and story by Kan Shimozawa in the same year.
The screenplay for this drama was created by writer and director Kaneto Shindo, probably most famous for his drama ONIBABA (1964). It is likely that Uno was aware of the bake kujira legend. It appears to me that 10 years after the initial idea for a first Japanese giant monster movie, Daiei intended to beat their competition of Toho. In adapting THE WHALE GOD, creating their own take of the legend in a movie. (Not to forget: Eiji Tsuburaya, composer Akira Ifukube and actor Takashi Shimura also worked for Daiei, along with their works at Toho!)
Another set of examples where the bake kujira is referenced are in P Productions’ SPECTREMAN (1971-1972) (Episodes 17+18), and the 25th and 29th Godzilla movie from Toho.
For GODZILLA in his 1954 debut, before he visually appeared the kaiju king is being referred to as a local deity, worshipped by the people of Odo Island. The King of the Monsters as a spiritual being again can be seen in GODZILLA, MOTHRA, KING GHIDORAH – GIANT MONSTERS ALL-OUT ATTACK (2001) by director Shusuke Kaneko. Godzilla there is the vengeful embodiment of the dead from the Pacific War, who were forgotten. SHIN GODZILLA (2016) from Hideaki Anno and Shinji Higuchi features the assumption that the giant creature before he makes landfall might be a whale. But since the word “shin” has the possible translation of the word “God”, the connection between language and beliefs can be found, too.
Back to THE WHALE GOD. The drama should see a manga adaptation of Takao Saito, who would later create Duke Togo, better known as GOLGO 13 – the world’s best and deadliest assassin.
Tokuzo Tanaka’s movie, also is sometimes called a Japanese MOBY DICK*. But how does MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE by Herman Melville fares in Japan? A few scenes indicate that John Huston’s MOBY DICK (1956) was probably a visual reference.
But how does Herman Melville’s most famous book work as a reference in Japanese popular culture? A country with its own identity and philosophies?
Preface 3:
MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE by Herman Melville is not only a book, it is a journey. A journey which has been read and adapted in a lot of artistic ways. Many people find it difficult or even impossible to understand, but no matter: MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE is influential. Much has been written and produced about it until this day; Melville’s immortal novel is a cultural backbone of the so-called western civilization.
Please note that this is not an exhaustive listing, it is only what I personally know or I am aware of. This tiny article is only meant to supplement the process of understanding how influential MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE is. I will avoid personal judgement.
The novel
The very first complete translation of MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE in Japan happened in 1941 by Tomoji Abe. It had no recognizable impact on the Japanese then. When the novel was republished in 1949, people there became more aware of it. The book is there titled HAKUGEI, which means WHITE WHALE. The book was next published in the 1950s by the following translators: Akira Tomita, Yutaka Miyanishi, and Nishijiro Tanaka.
Movie-releases and their influence
In 1956; the Huston directed MOBY DICK with a screenplay of his own with science-fiction-author Ray Bradbury was released into cinema. It was the third cinematic movie adaptation of MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE and the first, which is true to the text. This movie was released in Japan, too.
Inspired by this movie and it’s visuals, the magazine of Omoshiro Book (Funny Book) published an abridged retelling using art from Rockwell Kent of the 1930 Lakeside Press edition and even art by 19th century artist Thomas Beale, along with scenes drawn by Soji Yamakawa. A reprint happened in the magazine WILD. Soji Yamakawa is in Japan best known for the manga of KENYA BOY. KENYA BOY‘s depiction of the Tyrannosaurus rex would also contribute in creating the final design for Toho’s Godzilla by Akira Watanabe in 1954!
In 1969 artist Joya Kagemaru and writer Ikki Kajiwara (of ASHITA NO JOE and TIGER MASK fame) adapted MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE as a manga for young boys. (note that here Ishmael is a young boy!) where the visual influence is clearly seen from Huston’s movie.
In 1985, another adaptation, this time from artist Akira Hio (SPACE BATTLESHIP YAMATO), written by literary critic Hotsuki Ozaki, would do the same. There was also a manga by the same title in 1985 from Shiriagari Kotobuki, though the plot is original.
In the 2009 direct-to-video CGI-anime-series of MOBILE SUIT GUNDAM – MS IGLOO 2: GRAVITY BATTLEFRONT, episode 2: “King of the Land, Forward!” the character of Herman Yandell not only references Melville’s first name, but also the visual appearance of Gregory Peck as Captain Ahab. “King of the Land, Forward!” uses an antagonistic White Ogre-named Zaku II mobile suit mech. The human ace pilot of the Zaku II is Elmer Snell. For MOBILE SUIT GUNDAM in particular, there is a paragraph below.
While the other movie adaptations would see a Japanese release, too – MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE would find its own depictions and designs elsewhere.
Artists
When it comes to art for MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE, there are also several Japanese artists who drew their own take:
Go Nagai is a manga artist, once a student under Shotaro Ishinomori (KAMEN RIDER). His 1988 piece for a friend of his: MOBY DICK FOR PRESIDENT MATSUYAMA, is more like something from his own DEVILMAN manga than the source material: a white, giant sperm whale, with a naked barebreasted woman as a figure head, almost like a caricature of the Statue of Liberty. At the tail, there is a tiny man, probably a caricature of Ahab.
Like Ishinomori, Nagai is known for creating many influential titles and many iconic creations: MAZINGER Z or CUTIE HONEY to name two additional titles. It was Nagai’s MAZINGER Z from 1972 that created the mech (giant robot) boom. Nagai’s fame in the English-speaking world is quite limited, though.
In 1999 Tatsuya Morino made a picture for his book KAIBUTSU GENSO GASHU in a collection of famous horror icons.
A more traditional piece of art comes from Zakuro Aoyama, released in 2017.
The winner of the 2020 JIA Illustration Silver Award was THE DAY OF MOBY-DICK, created by artist Tsutomu Kitazawa. It was another completely free depiction: Giant sky dwelling whales, with a castle on their respective backs, a high fantasy setting.
The manga, anime, novel, and games connections and relations
Within the Japanese entertainment industry nothing can exist without the other. A true border, as it often happens in the western mind setting, does not exist there. MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE was also referenced in a few manga:
On one hand, you have short adaptations, like the one from Katsuhiro Otomo (best known for his manga and later anime of AKIRA) in his collection book named HÄNSEL UND GRETEL (the title refers to the German fairytale by the Brothers Grimm), where a short sequence is drawn by Otomo.
In 1985 Akira Miyashita started his series SAKIGAKE!! OTOKOJUKU. Within the manga, you can spot a more freer adaptation. “Chapter 14: Ocean Island , Tour 2: Captain Ahab” + “Chapter 15: Secret Operation: Hunt Moby Dick” sees the respective adaptation. The manga is a parody of what “being a man” means. A mixing of swashbuckler English pirate aesthetic and Japanese style is clearly seen.
For the former, mixing romantic English pirate looks with whaling is also something you can discover in the west: see Mead Schaeffer’s art from 1922 as the most prominent example! Ahab in Miyashita’s work wears an eye patch and a hook, plus ultimately ends up like the biblical Jonas in the belly of the whale.
The probably first “free” interpretation Ahab in a manga was in FISHERMAN SANPEI by Takao Yaguchi from the mid-1970s. The determination of Ahab is demonstrated that he wears an eye patch and has a pirate-styled flag on his ship. The anime adaptation came later.
Yukinobu Hoshino, known for hard-science-fiction manga (see 2001 NIGHTS (1984-1986)), created an alternate end and sequel for MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE in 1996.
Yet another adaptation of the novel was from the MANGA DE DOKUHA series in 2009, from anonymous art collective Variety Circle. This one is actually available in English from One Peace Books, under their “Manga Classic Readers” imprint.
The so-far latest appearance as a manga is AHAB by Tatsuya Saruwatari from 2022-2023. This manga, even if primarily set in the 19th century, uses original elements, to tell the battle between Ahab and Moby Dick. Saruwatari (RIKI-OH) is also known for his extreme violent actions, which can be seen here, too.
For anime:
TRITON OF THE SEA is originally a manga by Osamu Tezuka (JUNGLE EMPEROR LEO; better known in the West under the title KIMBA, THE WHITE LION). One year after the manga concluded, in 1972 an anime adaptation directed by Yoshiyuki Tomino hit Japanese TV. There is also one episode, which references Melville’s book.
A few years later, Tomino would create the work that, he would be immortalized for: 1979’s MOBILE SUIT GUNDAM. MOBILE SUIT GUNDAM has its own, if more unconscious references to Melville’s book. The original TV-series, like MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE and STAR TREK was at first not being recognized as the landmark work it is. Also, the titular mech, the RX-78-2 Gundam is called White Devil by the antagonistic faction, the Principality of Zeon. Tomino once called the 1956 movie MOBY DICK one of his favorite movies, so, inspiration might be possible.
Another GUNDAM spin-off, but also set during the One Year War from the original TV series, is the already mentioned MOBILE SUIT GUNDAM – MS IGLOO 2: GRAVITY BATTLEFRONT. Please note that Tomino is there only credited as a creator, along with the group known as Hajime Yadate.
Short cameos can be seen in URUSEI YATSURA’s 1980s anime incarnation, episode 32 “Shock Library – Quiet Please!” and episode 90 “Lady Ryuunosuke”. It seems that for the depiction of Ahab in episode 90 by Ryuunosuke Fujinami’s father inspired Akira Miyashita for his in SAKIGAKE!! OTOKOJUKU. URUSEI YATSURA from Rumiko Takahashi is a romantic, fantasy, action, science fiction comedy series.
Another one can be spotted in THE BOY AND THE BEAST from 2015 by director Mamoru Hosoda. Here it is the book itself from the Kadokawa Library published in the same year.
Again a more free in the depiction of Moby Dick himself is the White Demon from the novel series of RE:ZERO by Tappei Nagatsuki, starting in 2014. It was adapted into an anime TV-series.
For games, the first one to reference is TOKYO AFTERSCHOOL SUMMONERS, where an anthropomorphic water-bull is named Ahab and wears even an artificial leg. The 2020 game of AGE OF ISHTARIA shows a girl, with a harpoon and a single kneesock (as a pegleg representation), also named Ahab. In Japanese popular subculture, making a girl of a original male or genderless character is just a kind of anthropomorphism distinction (MOE).
Since many manga (and light novels) are also adapted into an anime, BUNGO STRAY DOGS by Kafka Asagiri and Sango Harukawa is one example, where you can find not only Herman Melville, but also a Moby Dick, only not as a sperm whale, but more like a baleen and artificial. For artificial whales, see below!
The manga of YU-GI-OH ARC-V sees another tribute. The whale named White Aura is one of the Synchro Monsters in this series.
The use of names
The names of Moby Dick or Ahab or both can be met literally everywhere. See also the manga epic ONE PIECE by Eiichiro Oda, where the ships of pirate Edward Newgate, AKA Whitebeard, are named Moby Dick. During the events of the story, a man named Kozuki Oden wanted to join Whitebeard and his crew. To test his determination he was forced to hold a chain for 3 days. A chain attached to their ship. Oden succeeded. The 3 days might be reference to the Final Chase between Ahab and Moby Dick from the book.
In Hideaki Anno’s first own directed anime epic: AIM FOR THE TOP!! (GUNBUSTER) from 1988-1989, there are two booster rocket ships named after the White Whale!
Another set of Ahab and sky whales, can be found in the SOUL EATER manga by Atsushi Okubo. Since the sky mirrors the ocean, it is seems only that here Okubo and Kitazawa had at-least the same initial idea.
Within Sakyo Komatsu’s novel DAY OF RESURRECTION (1964) a minor character codenamed Ahab is present. The English translation of the book and the international title of the movie adaptation from 1980 by director Kinji Fukasaku are named VIRUS. But this isn’t Komatsu’s only reference. In his own essay “DEAR IVAN EFREMOV“, Japan’s most famous science fiction-author compares MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE as a contemporary monster of its time.
The series of MOBILE SUIT GUNDAM: IRON-BLOODED ORPHANS (2015-2017) is set into an alternate universe. In this universe, Ahab particles and Ahab waves can create artificial gravity.
As readers of the novel know, Ahab has a family. Within RE-ZERO: FATE STRANGE FAKE, Ahab and later his son appear. The son is named Ishmael Ahab. Also in this title features a being, in shape of a giant white sperm-whale, supposedly female. It is more like a chapter, instead a full-blown adaptation.
Inspired works
I already mentioned artificial whales. The 1980 MU NO HAKUGEI (WHITE WHALE OF MU) (named MOBY DICK 5 in Italy) TV anime series established the trend of showing Moby Dick not as a sperm whale, as Melville created him. “Moby Dick” is also from time to time a general name for whales. However, here the White Whale is actually a giant spaceship.
Osamu Dezaki’s TV-anime-science-fiction-series HAKUGEI DENSETSU – LEGEND OF THE MOBY DICK (1997-1999) is another one. Again this work is more free: you have an artificial space-ship shaped whale, but this time more sperm whale in appearance, and Ahab again with an eye patch and an artificial leg. The story is again it’s own, where only tiny bits of Melville’s book are used.
For 2021’s WHITE WHALE MOBY DICK, author Baku Yumemakura (ONMYOJI movie series) created a whole novel, where he mixed Melville’s allegoric epic with real people. The historic figure of John Manjiro is also integrated into this book. Yumemakura’s take sees it that Manjiro also survives the encounter with Moby Dick, like Ishmael.
Conclusion
As you have now read, MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE has, besides the connection with Godzilla, a place in Japan. It is obviously not the position that the book occupies in the west, especially in the United States, but it generates influence of its own, which not only contributes to Japanese subcultures, but also to the western ones.
Should you be aware of more connections, that I missed: please contact me! (via Facebook)
You can see G-Fan #123 for my comparison between Moby Dick and Godzilla, which became available again with the release of THE WHALE GOD by SRS Cinema. This G-Fan issue is reported OOP.
* Moby-Dick or Moby Dick? Is there is a difference? Yes, indeed. For those, who read the novel, you don’t need an explanation. For all others: MOBY-DICK; OR: THE WHALE is the full title of the book. The titular sperm whale is written without the hyphen within Melville’s text. As a compromise to refer to both, I wrote it in Latin and capital letters.
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